essay on nonverbal communication and body language

• Verbal and Nonverbal Communication: Principles and Cues
• The Meaning of Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication
• Incorrect Definition of Non-Verbal Communication Issue
• Decoding Verbal and Nonverbal Communication
• Spanish Non-Verbal and Verbal Communication
• Verbal and Non Verbal Communication
• Communication and Its Importance in Everyday Life
• The Psychology of Verbal and Nonverbal Communication
• Importance of Nonverbal Communication to Children’s Growth
• Posture as a Non-Verbal Communication Element
• Non-Verbal Communication: Sender to Receiver Effectiveness
• Non-Verbal Communication in “When They See Us” TV Show
• Verbal Communication in Legal Institution
• Non-Verbal Communication in a Professional Setting
• Non-Verbal Communication Forms
• Nonverbal Messages in Everyday Communications
• The Importance of Communication Filters
• Communication Strategies for Non-Verbal Children
• The Use of All Senses in Nonverbal Communication
• Nonverbal Communication in Business and Politics
• Nonverbal Interpersonal Communication in “Friends” Show

Importance of Non-Verbal Communication Essay Example

Significance of nonverbal communication, features of nonverbal communication, forms of nonverbal communication, samples of nonverbal communication, nonverbal communication concept, nonverbal communication at the workplace, reference list.

Wondering how to write an essay about the importance of non-verbal communication and how it affects workplace relationships? We’ve got your back covered! Check the non-verbal communication essay example below and get some fresh ideas for your writing.

In communication, a reasonable percentage of understanding is derived from non-verbal communication. This kind of communication works always. However, it is not always the case that one speaks before people can derive the thoughts of that person. A lot of these thoughts can simply be derived from gestures, signals, or expressions.

This kind of communication can be very effective if one sends the appropriate signals aimed at the right target (Abramovitch 1977, p. 82). This form of communication can easily be misunderstood if the wrong signals are sent to the recipients. Hands are significant in conveying non-verbal communication as they are used for gesturing. The facial expression and body language also play a big role in this form of communication.

It is possible to know someone’s private feelings simply by looking at that person’s facial expression. For instance if a colleague is not in a good mood, one will simply need to look for the nonverbal communication that that person portrays. For communication to be effective, attention has to be given to that which is communicated non-verbally, good examples being the use of space, gestures and body language.

Non verbal communication may differ according to different cultures and this may be the main cause of misinterpretation. There are cultures that take the nodding of the head vertically as an agreement while others take it as a refusal. There are those who would perceive a minors direct look into the eye as honest while others while perceive it as disrespect.

For one to mask feelings or spontaneous reaction to information, the attention must be paid to the nonverbal behavior. It might be easy for one to control his/her voice or words yet still that person’s body language, facial expression as well as movement can expose his/her real thoughts and feelings.

No matter the position that one holds at the place of work, the ability to interpret non-verbal communication adds to the ability of that individual to share meaning with others. This is because the shared meaning is what constitutes communication (Abramovitch 1977, p. 87).

To understand nonverbal communication, one needs to recognize that different people communicate on different levels. Every gesture usually communicates something and all that is needed is to pay close attention to it. If the verbal and non-verbal communication is not in harmony, it is more likely that the communicator will be lying or is of a different idea from that being communicated. It might therefore be reasonable for the listener not to pay attention to that person’s non-verbal communication.

Non verbal communication might play a significant role during a job interview as the interviewer will be able to deduce the kind of person the candidate is, as well as his/her strengths and weaknesses. During a criminal investigation, the non-verbal signals that are relayed by the person under investigation may be even of greater importance that the verbal statements that that person gives.

It might be easier for the investigators to determine if the person being investigated is lying, is hiding some information or if the person is speaking the truth. This will only be possible if the investigator understands and rightly interprets the non-verbal signals.

When one is issuing a speech the nonverbal communication relayed by the audience might of great importance in helping the speaker know if the audience is paying attention, if the people are bored, exhausted, irritated or when it is time for another speaker to take charge. Listening to them is very important if the speaker needs to be effective. If the nonverbal communication is effectively used while delivering a message for instance through speech, that message will be effective and memorable (Abramovitch 1977, p. 90).

Non-verbal communication is complicated and it may be challenging to understand its signals. This type of communication involves the whole body, the space occupied, the time taken, what is left out and how it is left out. Non-verbal communication flows from one to another and this makes it difficult single out one element and interpret it correctly from the series of other elements. This type of communication is constantly in motion just as human beings are and it does not replicate itself in the same place.

This kind of communication unlike the spoken or written communication is irreversible. For the written communication, the communicator might be in a position to clarify, correct or retract the message that is conveyed. For the oral communication, one is able to give an explanation or restate with the intention of clarifying the point. It is therefore possible to correct oral communication, as much as the original message remains with its impact as well.

It is not possible to separate a single non-verbal action from its context correct it and take it back. In speech, this kind of communication is always occurring and it becomes difficult to tell when a single non verbal message starts or stops and to exactly determine when the next one starts. The communication is only relevant in its context and if it is singled out then it might easily be misinterpreted and misunderstood hence leading to a wrong conclusion being drawn.

One usually expresses himself or herself first through the nonverbal communication always without even consciously thinking about it. This communication portrays ones feelings and thoughts way before the person becomes aware of it.

This kind of communication usually brings out the intentional as well as unintentional messages. It is common for people to concentrate on how someone says something than what that message is really. It is surprising that human beings use more non-verbal communication than the verbal one and in some cases this type of communication may add up or even replace the verbal one (Bull 1987).

Illustrators which are nonverbal gestures are used to communicate the message in an effective way as well as reinforcing the points. This could for instance be a node which confirms acceptance. The response to this may be in the form of an emblem, which may be by using the O.K. sign to signal.

Regulators which are nonverbal messages may also be used for controlling, maintaining or discouraging interaction. One the speaker is irritating the listener could for instance hold up his/her hand and the speaker will interpret it as a request to stop (Benjamin & Craidler 1975, p. 27).Regulators may also be used by the audience listening to a speech. They may for instance look away, make drawings at the book margins or tap their feet, and all these regulators will be representing boredom or disinterest (Kelly 1982).

Adaptors can also be used in the non-verbal communication and they help one to adapt to the environment hence ensuring that the communicator is secure and comfortable. A good example would be the hairstyle or a behavior that is self adaptive. One may also use object-adaptors to convey a message of disinterest for instance.

They may use an object for a different purpose to show disinterest. A good example may be when the audience starts chewing the backside of their pens to signify disinterest. All in all, non-verbal communications are universal. They be used differently by different people in different places or they may take a different form but they will remain to be non-verbal communications.

Nonverbal communication forms a basis for communicating emotional massages as people rarely express their emotions through the spoken word. Most of the time people express their emotions none verbally. This is contributed to by the fact that some emotions might not be expressed well or fully in the verbal form. It is very easier to deduce deception for a speaker by keenly observing the person’s non-verbal communication.

Such a person may for instance avoid eye contact, awkwardly pause during the conversation, and delay while responding to questions, changing body movement and posture frequently. They person might also smile less and reduce the rate of his/her speech. When such behaviors are noticed in the speaker, the listener(s) may be required to be a bit keener. People’s speech patterns speak a lot concerning the truthfulness in the messages being conveyed.

This type of communication is very significant in the relationship that exists between the speaker and the audience. When people meet for the first time, the first conclusions that are made about the different parties are usually derived from the non-verbal messages that are displayed (Scheflen 1964).

This is usually based on the dressing code, the physical characteristics and the posture. Nonverbal communication therefore affects the first impression made, for better or for worse. Assumed expectation is usually derived from the speaker’s maintenance of personal space, the dressing code as well as the physical characteristics right from the time the speaker meets the audience. As much as these expectations may neither be fair nor accurate, they always exist.

Controlling the verbal and nonverbal communication is important in forming a good rapport with the audience (Ekman & Friesen 1969). Maintaining eye contact with them, using space appropriately and being formal enhances this kind of relationship. Nonverbal communication is usually perceived to be part of the message and it has the capability to contribute to or lead to detraction from the overall goal.

It is believed that whatever is not said is just as significant as what is said. Words just form a section of communication. From a facial expression, it is possible to determine whether someone is happy, surprised, fearful, angered, disgusted, interested or sad. Interpreting nonverbal communication needs no special communication.

It may however require extensive training for one to be self aware of portraying nonverbal communication to others. Agreement between the two forms of communication enhances the establishment of a common understanding. A genuine and positive smile could indicate an agreement with an idea or a person.

The attire that is worn also plays a significant role in bringing out a nonverbal message. What someone puts on is what people call a ‘fashion statement.

A formal dressing code could be adapted while speaking in an official meeting. On the contrary, a casual code could be adapted if the message is targeted to people within an informal setting. Eyes have always been perceived to be windows to the soul. Maintaining an eye contact could be a show of interest or attraction, while disgust is indicated by an upward nose wrinkle and raising of the upper lip.

The element of time keeping also falls under nonverbal communication. When a speaker arrives at a meeting on time, and sticks to the stipulated time, it speaks a lot about that person.

It implies seriousness and commitment on the speaker’s side. It also says a lot about the gravity of the topic under discussion (Scheflen 1964). Culture plays a very significant role in any communication. In the case of nonverbal communication, culture determines what is and what is not allowed. Some cultures give room for lateness while others do not (Argyle & Kendon 1967).

Nonverbal communication just like the verbal one is a section of a society’s backbone. This kind of communication is necessary for helping people to coexist and build their own culture. For any communication study to be effective, one needs to grasp the basic concepts of not only the verbal but the nonverbal communication as well.

Most of the time, these two forms of communication occur together. The non verbal communication is usually composed of three major components which include; the one creating the communication, the communication itself and the recipient (Darwin 1872). There has always been a misconception that sign language falls under the nonverbal communication. This is however not the case as sign language is categorized under the visual language-based communication.

There needs to be a complementary relationship between the verbal and the verbal forms of communication. If not, then the result is confusion, disappointment and mistrust. Whatever is said must be complemented by the actions (Benjamin & Creider 1975).

Nonverbal communication is significant in the clarification and making the verbal communication to be well understood. Facial and hand gestures are used to illustrate whatever is communicated. It offers the cues that assist in ensuring that the message is understood.

This type of communication is important as it portrays one’s perceptions, beliefs and the person’s world view. They expose whatever is in a person. If one pulls back when a hug is offered it may signify that the person has an aversion to the physical touch which could be attributed to his/her past experiences (Argyle & Kendon 1967).

The non verbal communication plays a big role in affirming a message. For instance, verbal communication demonstrating how to use online purchasing tools could be affirmed by the speaker taking a computer and demonstrating the same to the audience. It helps in reinforcing the message.

At the workplace, violating ones personal space is a nonverbal communication that might be offensive. Slumping in a chair could be a sign of fatigue or an indication that the person is sad. Boredom at a meeting could be expressed through yawning while anger could be expressed by folding the hands.

Such clues can be used while encouraging someone positively respond when asked to do something. While at the workplace, it is possible to know the feelings of workers just by observing their body languages or facial expressions. This is significant I determining whether the workers are displeased or please either by the working conditions or the rules and regulations that are in place at the workplace.

Abramovitch, R., 1977. Children’s recognition of situational aspects of facial expression’, Child Development, Vol. 48. No. 4, pp. 77-98.

Argyle, M., & Kendon, A., 1967, The experimental analysis of social performance. in L. Berkowitz (ed.). Advances in Experimental Social Psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Benjamin, G.R., & Creider, C. A., 1975. Social distinctions in non-verbal behavior.

Semiotica, Vol.14, No. 3, pp. 22-46

Bull, P.E., 1987, Posture and Gesture. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Darwin, C., 1872, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. London: Macmillan Publishers.

Ekman P., & Friesen, W., 1969. The repertoire of nonverbal behavior. Semiotica, Vol. 1, No. 5, pp. 66-80.

Kelly, J. A., 1982, Social Skills Training: A Practical Guide for Interventions. London: Macmillan Publisher London.

Scheflen, A. E., 1964. The significance of posture in communication systems. Psychiatry Vol.27, No. 2, pp. 200-205

• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2019, February 20). Importance of Non-Verbal Communication. https://ivypanda.com/essays/non-verbal-communication/

"Importance of Non-Verbal Communication." IvyPanda , 20 Feb. 2019, ivypanda.com/essays/non-verbal-communication/.

IvyPanda . (2019) 'Importance of Non-Verbal Communication'. 20 February.

IvyPanda . 2019. "Importance of Non-Verbal Communication." February 20, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/non-verbal-communication/.

1. IvyPanda . "Importance of Non-Verbal Communication." February 20, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/non-verbal-communication/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Importance of Non-Verbal Communication." February 20, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/non-verbal-communication/.

• To find inspiration for your paper and overcome writer’s block
• As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
• As a template for you assignment

Body Language in Human Social Interaction

How it works

• 1 Kinesics: The Language of Movement
• 2 Haptics: The Power of Touch
• 3 Proxemics: The Space Between Us
• 4 Chronemics: The Language of Time
• 5 Paralanguage: The Voice Behind Words
• 6 Conclusion

Kinesics: The Language of Movement

Kinesics, the study of body movements as a form of communication, plays a crucial role in how we express ourselves and interpret others. Need a custom essay on the same topic? Give us your paper requirements, choose a writer and we’ll deliver the highest-quality essay! Order now

It encompasses facial expressions, gestures, posture, and eye movements. Among these, oculesics is particularly significant as it focuses on the communication conveyed through eye behavior. Our facial expressions and eye contact can reveal emotions and intentions, often more accurately than words. For example, a smile can indicate friendliness or approval, while avoiding eye contact might suggest discomfort or deceit.

Haptics: The Power of Touch

Proxemics: the space between us.

Proxemics examines how we use and perceive space and distance in communication. The concept is divided into four categories: intimate, personal, social, and public distances. Intimate distance is reserved for close relationships, such as hugs or whispering, while personal distance is suitable for interactions with family and friends. Social distance is common in professional settings or when meeting new people, and public distance is used for addressing larger groups.

Chronemics: The Language of Time

Chronemics explores how humans perceive and use time as a communication tool. Our attitudes toward time can send both intentional and unintentional messages, reflecting our priorities and cultural backgrounds. For example, in the United States, arriving late to a social event may be acceptable, but punctuality is crucial in professional settings. These time-related norms convey respect and professionalism.

Paralanguage: The Voice Behind Words

Paralanguage refers to the vocal elements that accompany speech, such as tone, pitch, volume, and rate. These features can alter the meaning of spoken words, providing insight into a speaker's emotions and intentions. For example, a sentence delivered with a cheerful tone conveys positivity, while the same words spoken in a monotone might suggest disinterest or sarcasm.

Nonverbal communication is a complex and multifaceted aspect of human interaction, encompassing kinesics, haptics, proxemics, chronemics, and paralanguage. Each type offers unique insights into how we communicate and connect with others. By understanding and mastering these forms of nonverbal communication, we can enhance our interpersonal skills, foster better relationships, and navigate social situations more effectively. As we become more attuned to these cues, we can better interpret the unspoken messages that enrich our communication experiences.

Cite this page

Body Language in Human Social Interaction. (2022, Aug 24). Retrieved from https://papersowl.com/examples/kinetics-is-one-of-the-methods-of-non-verbal-communication/

"Body Language in Human Social Interaction." PapersOwl.com , 24 Aug 2022, https://papersowl.com/examples/kinetics-is-one-of-the-methods-of-non-verbal-communication/

PapersOwl.com. (2022). Body Language in Human Social Interaction . [Online]. Available at: https://papersowl.com/examples/kinetics-is-one-of-the-methods-of-non-verbal-communication/ [Accessed: 24 Dec. 2024]

"Body Language in Human Social Interaction." PapersOwl.com, Aug 24, 2022. Accessed December 24, 2024. https://papersowl.com/examples/kinetics-is-one-of-the-methods-of-non-verbal-communication/

"Body Language in Human Social Interaction," PapersOwl.com , 24-Aug-2022. [Online]. Available: https://papersowl.com/examples/kinetics-is-one-of-the-methods-of-non-verbal-communication/. [Accessed: 24-Dec-2024]

PapersOwl.com. (2022). Body Language in Human Social Interaction . [Online]. Available at: https://papersowl.com/examples/kinetics-is-one-of-the-methods-of-non-verbal-communication/ [Accessed: 24-Dec-2024]

Don't let plagiarism ruin your grade

Hire a writer to get a unique paper crafted to your needs.

Our writers will help you fix any mistakes and get an A+!

Please check your inbox.

You can order an original essay written according to your instructions.

Trusted by over 1 million students worldwide

1. Tell Us Your Requirements

2. Pick your perfect writer

3. Get Your Paper and Pay

Hi! I'm Amy, your personal assistant!

Don't know where to start? Give me your paper requirements and I connect you to an academic expert.

short deadlines

100% Plagiarism-Free

Certified writers

Home — Essay Samples — Sociology — Nonverbal Communication — The Importance Of Nonverbal Communication: Actions Speak Louder Than Words

The Importance of Nonverbal Communication: Actions Speak Louder than Words

• Categories: Communication Skills First Impression Nonverbal Communication

About this sample

Words: 423 |

Published: Mar 18, 2021

Words: 423 | Page: 1 | 3 min read

Cite this Essay

To export a reference to this article please select a referencing style below:

Let us write you an essay from scratch

• 450+ experts on 30 subjects ready to help
• Custom essay delivered in as few as 3 hours

Get high-quality help

Prof Ernest (PhD)

Verified writer

• Expert in: Life Sociology

+ 120 experts online

By clicking “Check Writers’ Offers”, you agree to our terms of service and privacy policy . We’ll occasionally send you promo and account related email

No need to pay just yet!

Related Essays

3 pages / 1573 words

3 pages / 1449 words

1 pages / 245 words

3 pages / 1298 words

Remember! This is just a sample.

You can get your custom paper by one of our expert writers.

121 writers online

Still can’t find what you need?

Browse our vast selection of original essay samples, each expertly formatted and styled

Related Essays on Nonverbal Communication

Nonverbal communication plays a crucial role in our daily interactions, shaping the way we understand and convey messages. From casual conversations to professional settings, nonverbal cues can significantly impact the [...]

Howe, N. (2018). How Sibling Imitation Affords Different Developmental Opportunities and Challenges. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 59(9), 1032-1039.

In various fields such as science, literature, and politics, visual representations play a significant role in communicating knowledge. Visual representations encompass a wide range of forms, including images, charts, and [...]

Behavior plays a crucial role in shaping our personal and professional lives, affecting our relationships, productivity, and overall well-being. Therefore, understanding and improving our behavior is essential for personal [...]

It is often said that “Action speaks louder than words” (Lincoln, 1856). In actuality, this famous proverb highlights the importance of nonverbal communication. According to Nordquist (2019), “Nonverbal communication is the [...]

Amy Cuddy presents “Power Posing” at a Ted conference in Edin, Scotland. She explains the importance of body language by how others may see them, but how they also see themselves. That by doing power poses can help them portray [...]

Related Topics

By clicking “Send”, you agree to our Terms of service and Privacy statement . We will occasionally send you account related emails.

Where do you want us to send this sample?

By clicking “Continue”, you agree to our terms of service and privacy policy.

Be careful. This essay is not unique

This essay was donated by a student and is likely to have been used and submitted before

Download this Sample

Free samples may contain mistakes and not unique parts

Sorry, we could not paraphrase this essay. Our professional writers can rewrite it and get you a unique paper.

Please check your inbox.

We can write you a custom essay that will follow your exact instructions and meet the deadlines. Let's fix your grades together!

Get Your Personalized Essay in 3 Hours or Less!

We use cookies to personalyze your web-site experience. By continuing we’ll assume you board with our cookie policy .

• Instructions Followed To The Letter
• Deadlines Met At Every Stage
• Unique And Plagiarism Free

• school Campus Bookshelves
• menu_book Bookshelves
• perm_media Learning Objects
• login Login
• how_to_reg Request Instructor Account
• hub Instructor Commons

Margin Size

• Download Page (PDF)
• Download Full Book (PDF)
• Periodic Table
• Physics Constants
• Scientific Calculator
• Reference & Cite
• Tools expand_more
• Readability

selected template will load here

This action is not available.

5.2: Types of Nonverbal Communication

• Last updated
• Save as PDF
• Page ID 224828

• Butte College

\( \newcommand{\vecs}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)

\( \newcommand{\vecd}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash {#1}}} \)

\( \newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\) \( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)

( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\) \( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\)

\( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\) \( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\)

\( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\) \( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\)

\( \newcommand{\inner}[2]{\langle #1, #2 \rangle}\)

\( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\)

\( \newcommand{\id}{\mathrm{id}}\)

\( \newcommand{\kernel}{\mathrm{null}\,}\)

\( \newcommand{\range}{\mathrm{range}\,}\)

\( \newcommand{\RealPart}{\mathrm{Re}}\)

\( \newcommand{\ImaginaryPart}{\mathrm{Im}}\)

\( \newcommand{\Argument}{\mathrm{Arg}}\)

\( \newcommand{\norm}[1]{\| #1 \|}\)

\( \newcommand{\Span}{\mathrm{span}}\) \( \newcommand{\AA}{\unicode[.8,0]{x212B}}\)

\( \newcommand{\vectorA}[1]{\vec{#1}}      % arrow\)

\( \newcommand{\vectorAt}[1]{\vec{\text{#1}}}      % arrow\)

\( \newcommand{\vectorB}[1]{\overset { \scriptstyle \rightharpoonup} {\mathbf{#1}} } \)

\( \newcommand{\vectorC}[1]{\textbf{#1}} \)

\( \newcommand{\vectorD}[1]{\overrightarrow{#1}} \)

\( \newcommand{\vectorDt}[1]{\overrightarrow{\text{#1}}} \)

\( \newcommand{\vectE}[1]{\overset{-\!-\!\rightharpoonup}{\vphantom{a}\smash{\mathbf {#1}}}} \)

Chapter Learning Objectives

• Identify different types of nonverbal communication including: kinesics, vocalics, proxemics, haptics, physical appearance, olfatics, chronemics and space.
• Explain the influence of culture on nonverbal communication.
• Differentiate between intentional and unintentional nonverbal messages.
• Develop cultural sensitivity and respect for diverse nonverbal communication styles.

Types of Nonverbal Behaviors

One reason that nonverbal communication is so rich with information is that humans use so many different aspects of behavior, appearance, and environment to convey meaning. These types of nonverbal communication can vary considerably across cultures. Every culture interprets posture, gestures, eye contact, facial expressions, vocal noises, use of space, degree of territory, and time differently. Scholars call the different means used for transmitting information nonverbal communication codes. The general codes for nonverbal communication we examine in this section are: kinesics, vocalics, proxemics, haptics, physical appearance and artifacts, olfactics, music, chronemics, and space. As you read through this section, remember that the cultural patterns embedded in nonverbal codes should be used not as stereotypes for all members of particular cultures, but rather as tentative guidelines or examples to help you understand the great variation of nonverbal behavior in humans.

The word kinesics comes from the root word kinesis, which means “movement,” and refers to the study of hand, arm, body, and face movements. It is thought by some to be the richest nonverbal code in terms of its power to communicate meaning. Specifically, this section will outline the use of gestures, facial expressions, eye contact, and posture as kinetic forms of nonverbal communication.

One of the most common forms of gestures involves greetings and departures, which have rituals that are largely nonverbal, such as shaking hands or waving. These tend to vary across cultures. In Japan, for example, it is common to bow when greeting someone, with the nature of the bow (how deep and how long) being determined by the nature of the occasion and the social connection of the persons involved. In some cultures, kissing on the cheek is the usual greeting, although how many times the kisses are exchanged and which sexes are included can vary. In other parts of the world, there may be hugs and kisses, depending on the context and relationship. In Arab countries, it is common to bow and touch the forehead and chest (the salaam ) when meeting someone. The Wai is used in Thailand and in other Asian cultures, consisting of a bow with the palms pressed together. In other cultures, people rub noses, such as in the hongi , a traditional greeting of the Maori people in New Zealand. Knowledge of such rituals can be helpful in avoiding awkwardness in first encounters.

One of the richest array of gestures is for communicating insults and obscenities. Insult gestures tend to vary across cultures and are different as well in the extent to which they are used. In Greece, for example, the moutza (μούτζα) is a commonly seen insult gesture. It consists of spreading the fingers (one hand or both) and trusting them outwards, towards the other person (as if flinging something unpleasant). In other cultures, the arm-thrust ( bras d'honneur ) is used, forging a fist and slapping it upwards under the biceps of the arm. Such gestures can be highly offensive and are often considered obscene. Other gestures may convey skepticism or disbelief, such as the French mon oeil (my eye), using a finger to pull down the lower eyelid. The gesture is also used in Japan, known as the Akanbe (あかんべえ).

The caution in using gestures extends to those which may be widespread in a culture, and which we may interpret as universal. The North American A-OK sign (circled thumb and pointer finger, with the other fingers spread out) is an obscene gesture in many European cultures. Likewise, the inverted peace sign – two fingers facing inward is an insult in England and Australia. The thumbs-up gesture signals in North America well done; in Greece and other countries, it is equivalent to the insulting "Up yours!" (Cotton, 2013). US President George W. Bush famously used the hook ‘em horns gesture of the Texas Longhorn football team to signal his approval of the marching band of the University of Texas. In Italy, that gesture is well-known, but it doesn't signal fan enthusiasm or let's rock. It is called il cornuto , indicating that the other person is a cuckold, that is, that his wife is cheating on him (Cotton, 2013).

Pointing with the forefinger is a gesture North Americans frequently use. Using that gesture to point at people is in some cultures extremely rude. Likewise, the beckoning gesture with the palm turned upward and extending one finger or the whole hand is considered an insult in Japan and other countries. There are a variety of beckoning gestures, in Afghanistan and the Philippines, for example, one motions downward with the palm of the hand facing the ground (Cotton, 2013). These gestures have traditionally been culture-specific. However, the forces of globalization and technology have exposed people worldwide to gestures used in popular media. Through the greater availability globally of North American television shows and movies, as well as the popularity of social media such as Facebook and YouTube, some North American gestures, such as those for greeting and departure, have become familiar in many other cultures.

Facial Expressions

Facial Expressions communicate an endless stream of emotions, and we make judgments about what others are feeling by assessing their faces. Our use of emoticons to communicate attitudes and emotions in electronic media testifies to the importance of this type of kinesics. It is often claimed that facial expressions – called affects displays – tend to be universal, the idea being that expressing basic emotions is an elemental, instinctive behavior common to all humans. This idea goes back to Charles Darwin (1872) who claimed all humans express emotion in the same way. This was later contradicted by anthropologists such as Margaret Mead (1975). It wasn't until the 1960s that so-called "universality studies" were conducted by Paul Ekman and others. In a series of experiments involving participants from a variety of cultures, they showed that there were six universal expressions — anger, disgust, fear, sadness, happiness, and surprise (Ekman, 1972). Later, a seventh expression, contempt, was added (Ekman & Heider, 1988). As the studies involved people from industrialized countries, who may have learned to interpret faces from mass media, other studies were conducted among tribal groups in New Guinea, which came to similar results (Ekman & Friesen, 1971). An interesting experiment conducted with blind athletes produced the same results as their sighted colleagues (Matsumoto & Willingham, 2009). Because blind athletes could not have learned the behaviors, one can assume there is an innate capacity to display facial expressions.

What causes particular emotions and determines their intensity can be quite different, both personally and culturally. Ekman and Friesen (1969) coined the term cultural display rules to describe such cultural differences in facial expressions. Consider the smile: People in all cultures have the ability to smile, but cultures value and interpret smiles in different ways. In other words, the meaning behind a smile is not universal. For example, in Russian, people do not smile because it implies that you are foolish, or possibly sneaky and manipulative. Even in family photos, adults often appear with flat or scowling faces. Many Latin American cultures prefer a proud and elegant facial appearance, which does not include smiling. In Japan, smiling is a way to show respect or to hide what you are actually feeling. In the United States, we smile to show a pleasant face to the people around us, to express happiness and gratitude. We often tend to smile for the purposes of getting along with others (Solomon, 2017). Some cultures tend to be much more expressive and rich in their use of facial expressions than others. Italians and Mediterraneans in general are normally placed in that category, while northern Europeans and Asians are seen as more restrained.

Codes of general conduct, politeness, or social harmony may influence the public display of emotions. This was shown in a cross-cultural experiment (Matsumoto & Ekman, 1989), which studied the facial expressions of Japanese and US students while watching emotionally disturbing films. When both groups of young people were among themselves, they showed the same expressions. However, when the Japanese students were with an older, male observer, they displayed neutral expressions or even smiled, while the US students continued to display the same negative emotions. These cultural display rules explain the difference in expressions of the Japanese students in the experiment, as due to the cultural mandate in Japan of managing and minimizing expressions of feelings in the presence of a third party. In Japan, it is culturally appropriate to hide unhappiness by smiling or embarrassment by laughing. While weeping in public is considered in Japan to be inappropriate, in Middle Eastern or Latin American cultures it is normal to express one's emotions openly and visibly.

Using the concept of cultural display rules, Matsumoto (1990) developed a theory of the expression of emotions that incorporates Hofstede's taxonomies, particularly as they relate to individualism versus collectivism. According to the theory, because individualistic cultures encourage and reward self-expression, individuals in those cultures are free to express fully and instinctively their feelings, whether they be positive or negative. On the other hand, those in collectivistic cultures are bound by conventions of the collective good and social harmony to regulate their expression of emotion when not alone. Matsumoto also incorporates the concept of power distance:

"Large power-distance cultures endorse displays of emotion that reinforce hierarchical relations (i.e., status reminders), such as showing anger toward a low-status person or appeasing a high-status person (e.g., smiling). Small power-distance cultures embrace egalitarian values and teach the importance of treating people as equals. Thus, there is less pressure in these cultures for members to adjust displays of emotion according to the status of another person. (Remland et al., 2014)"

Large power-distance cultures tend to be correlated with collectivism, just as small power-distance cultures are correlated with individualism. As always, in such broad-stroke generalizations, caution is needed in applying these labels to individuals. While dominant cultural forces may be powerful, they may be contradicted and potentially negated by values associated with group membership, whether those be ethnic, regional, or other. It is also the case that individual personalities play a significant role in the degree to which emotions are displayed or suppressed. The patterns we've identified in nonverbal behavior should be seen as examples, not as absolutes. Being aware of such potential variations can be helpful in adjusting expectations and suspending judgments.

Eye Contact

Eye contact, or Oculesics , serves many purposes. We use our eyes to express emotions, regulate a conversation, indicate listening behavior, show interest in others, respect, status, hostility, and aggression (Burgoon, Buller & Woodall, 1996). Patterns of eye contact vary significantly by culture. Generally, eye contact is considered a good thing in the United States. It can mean that you are interested, confident, and bold (a good thing), but people often avoid eye contact in crowded, impersonal situations such as walking down a busy street or riding a crowded bus. In France, however, someone may feel free to watch someone interesting on the street and consciously make eye contact to indicate interest. In the Middle East, direct eye contact is less common and generally less appropriate, whereas lack of eye contact in Asia is often a sign of respect and considered polite. Within the US, different ethnic groups have been found to follow different norms in the use of eye contact to regulate conversations. African-Americans maintain eye contact when speaking but avert their gaze when listening, but just the opposite is true for European Americans (LaFrance & Mayo, 1978). This distinction can lead to conflict:

"Interethnic expectancy violations exist when African Americans expect the European Americans to look them in the eyes when speaking but instead receive “non-responsiveness” or “indifference” cues. European Americans, on the other hand, may view the direct eye gaze during speaking as “confrontational” or “aggressive” (Ting-Toomey, 1999, p.126)."

In both pluralistic societies and in cross-cultural encounters, being mindful of variations in this area is important. Nora Dresser's book, Multicultural Matters (2005), chronicles how Korean-American shopkeepers, who did not make eye contact with their customers, were perceived as disrespectful, something contributing to the open confrontation taking place in US urban centers between some Asians and African Americans. In some contexts in the US, such as in urban areas among teens and young adults, looking directly at someone can be seen as a provocation, reflected in the term "mad-dogging" (Remland et al., 2015).

Posture is the last item in our list of kinesics . Humans can stand up straight or slouch, lean forward or backward, round or slump our shoulders, and tilt our heads. Mehrabian (1972) believed that posture communicates immediacy and power . Immediacy is the degree to which you find someone interesting and attractive. Typically, when someone from the United States finds someone attractive, they face the person when talking, hold their head up, and lean in. Whereas a reaction to someone they don’t like might have them look away and lean back. Power is the ability to influence people or events. In the United States, high-status communicators typically use relaxed postures (Burgoon et al., 1996), but in Japan, the opposite is true. Japanese display power through erect posture with feet planted firmly on the floor.

Vocal characteristics we use to communicate nonverbal messages are called vocalics or paralanguage (with language) . Vocalics involves verbal and nonverbal aspects of speech that influence meaning, including rate, pitch, tone, volume, intensity, pausing, and even silence. Tone and intonation can have a determining effect on the message conveyed, turning a statement, for example, into a sarcastic comment. The volume, fluency, or rhythm of speech can transmit to the listener information such as degree of confidence, nervousness, or even perceived trustworthiness of the speaker. The voice qualities of a speaker can be as important in conveying a message as the semantic value of the words spoken. Scholars who engage in conversation analysis have shown even slight modifications in voice tone or intonation can send a message to the listener.

One of the roles vocalizations play is to function as a backchannel or filler in conversations, a way for a listener to send messages to the speaker. This may consist in English sounds such as "uh-huh" or "hmm", or words and phrases like "yes" or "go on". Backchannel responses play different roles; they may encourage the speaker to continue, indicate the extent of interest, or assess the speaker's statements, i.e., agreeing ("Right”) or expressing doubt ("Do you really think so?”). There may be more than simple words or phrases involved, namely longer utterances completing the speaker's sentences, requesting clarification, or attempting to take the floor. Backchannel communication occurs across cultures, but may vary in norms and expectations, which can cause confusion or awkwardness. The Japanese filler hai hai is often used by natives in the meaning of "I hear you", but given that hai literally means "yes" there may be misunderstanding in a non-native assuming a positive affirmation, rather than merely an acknowledgement of having heard the speaker.

How conversations flow varies with culture and context. In situations in which a strict hierarchy is present or when the interaction is highly formal, there may be fixed patterns for managing a conversation and signaling when it is over. In such situations, interrupting a speaker may be inappropriate. There are conversational norms which may play a role. In particular cultures, it is common, even expected, for others to interrupt a speaker frequently. In France, for example, this is seen as part of what constitutes a good conversation.

"[Interruptions] signal interest in the other’s remark, which merits a commentary, a word of appreciation, denial, protest, or laughter–in short, a reaction without which the remark would ‘fall flat.’ The ball is tossed to be caught and tossed back. Where there is no ‘interruption,’ when each person speaks sedately in turn (as in American conversation, according to the French), the conversation never ‘takes off’; it remains polite, formal, cold (Carroll, 1988, p. 37)."

While this kind of spontaneity and frequent back-and-forth is seen by the French (and in other cultures) as stimulating, it may be seen by some as chaotic or rude. Our cultural backgrounds tend to lead us to make assumptions about others based on paralinguistic clues. One of these clues is the speaker's accent. Non-native accents can often stigmatize the speaker, evoking stereotypes associated with social class, ethnic background, economic status, or level of education. In some cases, a particular accent, such as a British accent in the US, is perceived positively. In most cases, however, accents are perceived negatively and may have real-world consequences for the speaker in terms of discrimination in personal encounters or institutional settings. As is the case with other forms of nonverbal communication across cultures, paralinguistic behaviors vary across cultures and can lead to misunderstanding of another person's intentions or feelings. Harry Triandis (1994) provides a dramatic example of misinterpreting vocal clues:

"In January, 1991, James Baker, then the United States Secretary of State, met with Tariq Aziz, the Foreign Minister of Iraq. They met in an effort to reach an agreement that would prevent a war. Also present in the room was the half-brother of Saddam Hussein, whose role included frequent calls to Hussein with updates on the talks. Baker stated, in his standard calm manner, that the US. would attack if Iraq did not move out of Kuwait. Hussein ’s half-brother heard these words and reported that “The Americans will not attack. They are weak. They are calm. They are not angry. They are only talking.” Six days later Iraq saw Desert Storm and the loss of about 175,000 of their citizens. Triandis argued that Iraqis attend to how something is said more than what is said. He further suggests that if Baker had pounded the table, yelled, and shown outward signs of anger, the outcome may have been entirely different (Martin & Nakayama, 2010, p. 277)."

Coming from the Latin proximus, meaning “near,” proxemics refers to communication through the use of physical distance or space. Edward Hall (1966) pioneered the study of proxemics, the perception and use of physical space, including territoriality and personal space. Territoriality is related to control. Who gets the corner office? Who sits at the head of the table and why? Personal space refers to the conversation distance, or the “bubble” of space surrounding each individual. One of the actions which can affect the course of the conversation is for one or the other of the conversants to move closer or further away. Following complaints from both Arab and US students in a North American university setting, O.M. Watson (1970) investigated the nonverbal behavior of the two groups. He found that the US students viewed the Arabs as pushy and rude, while the Arabs considered the US students to be distant and rude. He discovered that a substantial part of the problem were different conceptions of personal space, with the US students feeling the Arab students were invading their bubbles and the Arab students seeing the US students as unfriendly because they were keeping their distance. Hall (1966) developed a four-level classification of social distance. For the US, he defined intimate space, reserved for highly personal relationships, as 9 to 18 inches (23 to 45 cm), and personal distance ("arm's length") at 1.5 to 4 feet (.5 to 1.2 m), the normal spacing for conversations. Social distance he established at between 4 and 12 feet (1.2 to 3.6 m), the spacing normal in casual gathering and work environments. Public distance he defined as being 12 feet (3.6 m) or longer, used for public speaking or large gatherings. Researchers have identified particular cultures as having a preference for closer proximity and a high degree of physical contact. Examples frequently given are Arabs, Latin Americans, and southern Europeans. Cultures who prefer further interaction distances include the USA, Northern Europe, and Australia. There are other factors besides regional culture which may affect personal distance, such as gender, age, ethnicity, or topic of conversation.

Touch in communication interaction is called haptics, from the ancient Greek word “ haptien.” Cultural norms have a strong impact on how people use and perceive touch. Touch conventions vary significantly across cultures and are dependent as well on age, gender, and relationship. In some Arab cultures, it is common for men to hold hands in particular situations. Some cultures have a taboo on touching the top of someone's head, as in patting a child, as the head is considered sacred. Another taboo, in India, the Middle East, and Africa, is the use of the left hand in certain social situations, such as eating. Regarding Thai culture:

• Don’t touch anyone’s head for any reason. The head is the most important part of the body. It is the seat of the soul.
• Do not touch a female on any part of her body.
• The feet are considered the “dirtiest” part of the body. They are used only for walking. Thus, it is an insult to rest your feet on someone else’s backrest, such as in the cinema or on a train.
• Women must never touch a monk or his robe. Even in a bus or train, Women cannot sit next to a monk.
• Always accept things with your right hand. The left hand is used to Wash the posterior and is therefore regarded as unclean (p. 138).

Hall (1963) suggests that the use of proxemics and haptics merge within a culture to create what researchers now call contact and noncontact cultures. In contact cultures , people stand closer together while talking, touch more frequently, and speak in louder voices. Some examples of contact cultures are cultures in Central and South America, the Middle East, and Eastern and Mediterranean Europe. For example, Latin American cultures tend to hug more than do Northern Europeans. In noncontact cultures , people stand farther apart while talking and touchless. Some examples of noncontact cultures are Great Britain, the United States, and Japan. This difference is exemplified in a study of outdoor cafes in London, England, and San Juan, Puerto Rico. Researchers found that Puerto Ricans touched each other an average of 180 times per hour whereas the British average was zero. Being aware of such norms in visiting another culture can make seemingly strange behavior understandable and help to avoid embarrassing faux pas.

Physical Appearance and Artifacts

Physical appearance and artifacts profoundly influence our communication encounters. In other words, how you look conveys as much about you as what you say. Physical appearance includes attributes such as hair, clothing, body type, and personal grooming. Across cultures, people credit individuals they find physically attractive with higher levels of intelligence, persuasiveness, poise, sociability, warmth, power, and employment success than they credit unattractive individuals (Hatfield & Sprecher, 1986). Communication researchers call this tendency to make a blanket judgment of a person based on one trait the halo (positive) or horns (negative) effect. As physical attractiveness is variable across cultures, and constantly being redefined, beauty is in the eye of the beholder.

Artifacts are the things we possess that influence how we see ourselves and that we use to express our identity to others. They can include rings and tattoos, but may also include brand names and logos. From clothes to cars, watches, briefcases, purses, and even eyeglasses, what we choose to surround ourselves with communicates something about our sense of self. They may project gender, role or position, class or status, personality, and group membership or affiliation.

Many cultures have rules and conventions for dress and appearance, established through custom or religious beliefs. Women in Muslim countries, for example, dress so that their hair is covered and, in some cases, also their bodies and faces. In some cases, dress can provide information about social/economic position, marital status, or age. In Japan, women's kimonos vary according to the time of year and occasion but also based on marital status and age. For the Masai tribe in Kenya, earrings and necklaces designate the marital status of women, while men wear earrings and arm rings that show their social status, indicating whether they are elders or warriors . In rural northern India, the level of a woman's veil over her face can indicate romantic interest or disinterest. Dress and physical appearance can be important identifiers for membership in particular groups. Members of motorcycle gangs wear black leather and heavy boots. Japanese businessmen ("salarymen") wear dark, conservative suits and plain ties. Japanese tourists often wear a resort hotel's yukata (a lightweight kimono) signaling to others in the town their role. In this way, forms of dress serve as identity markers. Certain uniforms signal professions, as in the case of police officers or members of the military, while also conveying a sense of authority and power.

Body piercings and tattoos, in bygone days, indicators of low-prestige socio-economic status (sailors, carnival workers), have become mainstream among young people in the US and elsewhere. Older people are likely to retain the images from the past and may have a negative view of heavily tattooed or pierced young people. One of the persistent stereotypes is in regards to women's dress and appearance. Young women in mini skirts and tank tops, especially if blonde, may be perceived as flighty and unintelligent. Muslim women wearing a hijab face prejudice and discrimination in many non-Muslim countries, which is even more pronounced for those wearing a whole body burqua . In some Western countries, wearing traditional Muslim female dress in public or in schools has been banned. In the US, hooded sweatshirts ( hoodies ) are often associated with young black men. In Florida, a young black man, Treyvon Martin, was wearing a hoodie when shot dead by a white "neighborhood watch" member as he was returning from a convenience store. The white man found Martin "suspicious", due to his skin color and attire.

Appearance messages are generally the first nonverbal codes we process, sizing up the other person based on skin color, appearance, and clothing. The first impression might determine our attitude towards another person, helping to determine whether we want to get to know that person or not. Sometimes, some features of the other person's appearance might lead to specific pre-judgments. One of those might be the particular shade of skin. Black people with darker skin are sometimes viewed as somehow less attractive or having lower status than Blacks with lighter skin. Light-skinned Blacks may feel discriminated against as well (see sidebar). In South American countries such as Brazil, there is a rich mix of ethnicities and races, resulting in a wide range of skin colors and a complex social hierarchy, built in part on the particular shade of one's skin.

Different Shades of Black Identity

If you are a light-skinned Black person, you are looked upon as "uppity" or thinking that you’re too good. This is something I have come across a lot. For my first year of college, I attended the first historically Black college, Lincoln University. It was my first time being around that many African Americans (the high school I attended was mostly Caucasian). I am naturally shy, so I would walk around not speaking to anyone. In many cases I would walk around looking at the ground or just with no expression on my face whatsoever. I was viewed as the "uppity" light-skinned girl who thought she was too good for everyone else. - Ami

Remland et al., 2014, p. 149.Different Shades of Black Identity Example \(\PageIndex{1}\)

In some cases, we are conscious of the distinctive views we may have towards those with a certain appearance. Many US Americans, for example, have heard so much since 2001 about Muslims and terrorism, that someone perceived to be Muslim by their appearance and dress likely triggers already well-established and self-acknowledged views on Muslims. The largely negative stereotypes can have tragic consequences, as the acts of violence towards Muslims in the US and elsewhere has shown. In some cases, the perceived target may not even represent the intended group. The first victim of a revenge killing in the US following the September 11, 2001 attacks was not a Muslim, but a Sikh gas station manager in Arizona shot down by a man vowing to kill "towel heads".

The study of smell in humans is called olfactics . In some cultures (in Africa and the Middle East, for example) there's a preference for standing close enough to a person in conversation to be able to detect body odor. Odor is used in such cases to categorize people according to status, power, or social class. In many cultures wearing an expensive perfume or cologne can signal status and wealth. On the other hand, the smell of sweat or strong body odor is likely to suggest manual labor and lower social status. Some smells are associated with particular ethnic groups and may lead to prejudicial treatment. The smell of curry, linked to South Asians, has been used as a basis for discrimination, such as refusing to rent apartments to Indians or Pakistanis (Jackson, 2014). Although some smells seem to be universally attractive (jasmine, lavender, roses) others may vary in how they are perceived across cultures. The smell of onions, for example, is considered unpleasant in many cultures, but the Dagon people of Mali find the smell attractive, even to the point of rubbing onions on their bodies.

Attributions

Adapted from:

Language and culture in context: A primer in intercultural communication by Robert Godwin-Jones. Provided by LibreTexts. License: CC-BY-NC

Intercultural Communication for the Community College , by Karen Krumrey-Fulks. Provided by LibreTexts. License: CC-BY-NC-SA

Exploring Intercultural Communication by Tom Grothe. Provided by LibreTexts. License: CC-BY-NC-SA

Image Attributions

Inside a men's bathroom at a University in Madrid, Spain by Tom Grothe is used under CC-BY license

Cotton, G. (2013). Gestures to avoid in cross-cultural business: in other words,'keep your fingers to yourself. The Huffington Post. Avaiable at:< The Huffington Post [www] . huffingtonpost. com/gayle-cotton/cross-cultural-gestures_b_3437653. html>(retrieved July 7, 2017) .

Ekman, P. (1972). Universal and Cultural Differences in Facial Expression of Emotions. In J. Cole (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation (pp. 207-283)

Ekman, P., & Heider, K. G. (1988). The universality of a contempt expression: A replication. Motivation and emotion , 12 (3), 303-308.

Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1971). Constants across cultures in the face and emotion. Journal of personality and social psychology , 17 (2), 124.

Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1969). The repertoire of nonverbal behavior: Categories, origins, usage, and coding. semiotica , 1 (1), 49-98.

Hall, E. T. (1966). The hidden dimension. Garden City .

Hatfield, E., & Sprecher, S. (1986). Measuring passionate love in intimate relationships. Journal of adolescence , 9 (4), 383-410.

Jackson, J. (2014). Introducing language and intercultural communication. Routledge

LaFrance, M., & Mayo, C. (1978). Cultural aspects of nonverbal communication. International Journal of Intercultural Relations , 2 (1), 71-89.

Martin, J. (2010). Intercultural Communication in Contexts.

Matsumoto, D., & Willingham, B. (2009). Spontaneous facial expressions of emotion of congenitally and noncongenitally blind individuals. Journal of personality and social psychology , 96 (1), 1.

Remland, M. S. (2016). Nonverbal communication in everyday life . Sage Publications.

Ting-Toomey, S. (1999) Communicating across Cultures. The Guilford Press, New York, 261.